IBTS Integrated Biblical and Theological Studies 3079-0328 AOSIS IBTS-2-13 10.4102/ibts.v2i1.13 Original Research How does Paul speak about Christ’s agency? Lexical analysis and patristic reception of Paul’s vocabulary https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8046-8572 Hagerman Justin M. 1 2 Department of Humanities, Faculty of Letters and Languages, Lyon Catholic University, Lyon, France Department of Humanities, Higher School for Economic and Social Development, Lyon Catholic University, Lyon, France Corresponding author: Justin Hagerman, jhagerman@univ-catholyon.fr 19022026 2026 2 1 13 07082025 10122025 © 2026. The Author 2026 Licensee: AOSIS. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license.

This article attempts to contribute to recent scholarly discussion on the theological character of Christ’s activity by providing a close analysis of the language that Paul uses in three selected texts: 1 Thessalonians 3:12–13; Philippians 3:20–21; Romans 15:18–19. The rationale for selecting these three Pauline texts in particular is that they include three different Greek verbs (στηρίζω, µετασχηµατίζω, and κατεργάζοµαι) that provide varied starting points for exegetical analysis and theological interpretation. In terms of research methodology, this article treats each Pauline verse in relation to two poles: (1) the vocabulary of the Septuagint and classical Greek sources; (2) the reception of these three Pauline verses according to the data recorded in Biblindex concerning patristic sources between the 1st and 5th centuries.

Contribution

By developing the argumentation with a fresh presentation of this Pauline data, scholars will gain not only more robust comparative and historical frameworks for the interpretation of Christ’s varied actions according to Paul’s grammar but also a richer appreciation for the nuanced vocabulary that Paul uses to communicate his experiences in relation to Christ. Rather than treating linguistic and theological elements in parallel, this study proposes that Paul’s vocabulary can be conceived as an act of language that functions to describe and influence the reality in which Paul and his addressees are situated.

 agency Biblindex grammar intertextuality Paul reception Sources Chrétiennes vocabulary Funding information This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. Introduction

Biblical research has witnessed increasing attention to the concept of agency – particularly defined as a theory of action – in Pauline theology. Recent contributions include close readings of biblical texts, comparative methodologies and conceptual frameworks for interpreting Paul’s language about Christ.1 These recent efforts have established an emerging consensus regarding the ways that Paul frames divine and human agencies in terms of a non-contrastive relationship. Moreover, there is an interpretative current that brings into clearer focus the relationship that Paul communicates between Christ and creation.2 Despite the progress made by conceptual and historical studies on Paul, one area that remains in need of further scholarly investigation is a lexical analysis of Paul’s vocabulary related to Christ’s agency and its reception in patristic sources recorded by the Biblindex database.

It is in this way that the present article intends to establish new connections between lexicographical research on Paul’s vocabulary of Christ’s agency and the patristic citations of Paul’s letters according to Biblindex. The analysis in this article is organised around three selections from the Pauline letters3: (1) 1 Thessalonians 3:12–13 (cited 15 times in the selected patristic literature); (2) Philippians 3:20–21 (cited 187 times); (3) Romans 15:18–19 (cited 19 times).4 This selected Pauline data will allow closer examination of three specific Greek verbs – στηρίζω, µετασχηµατίζω, κατεργάζοµαι – that Paul uses to portray Christ’s agency.5 The rationale for selecting these texts is that Paul uses these particular verbs with the grammatical subject, Χριστός, thus designating Christ’s actions relatively explicitly. By selecting verbs from three different Pauline letters, our analysis gains exegetical nuance as well as a broader Christological frame.

 Paul’s vocabulary of strengthening the heart: 1 Thessalonians 3:12–13

The first text for analysis is 1 Thessalonians 3:12–13, where Paul uses the verb στηρίζω [strengthen]: ‘And may the Lord make you increase and abound in love for one another and for all, just as we abound in love for you. And may he so strengthen your hearts in holiness that you may be blameless before our God and Father at the coming of our Lord Jesus with all his saints’6 [ὑμᾶς δὲ ὁ κύριος πλεονάσαι καὶ περισσεύσαι τῇ ἀγάπῃ εἰς ἀλλήλους καὶ εἰς πάντας καθάπερ καὶ ἡμεῖς εἰς ὑμᾶς, εἰς τὸ στηρίξαι ὑμῶν τὰς καρδίας ἀμέμπτους ἐν ἁγιωσύνῃ ἔμπροσθεν τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ πατρὸς ἡμῶν ἐν τῇ παρουσίᾳ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ μετὰ πάντων τῶν ἁγίων αὐτοῦ, {ἀμήν}].7

In this example of 1 Thessalonians 3:12–13, two points are evident: (1) Jesus, as κύριος, is the active subject; (2) the recipients of Paul’s letter are the ones whose hearts [καρδίας] benefit from this strengthening. By starting from this point of reference, it is possible to pursue the following question: To what extent does Paul’s use of στηρίζω correspond to uses in Greek and Jewish literature? In Greek classical literature, the authors who use στηρίζω most frequently include Hippocrates (14 occurrences), Homer (5 occurrences), Euripides (4 occurrences) and Oppian (4 occurrences) (Bailly 2000:1793; Liddel & Scott 1996:1644). The infinitive form, στηρίξαι – as it appears in 1 Thessalonians 3:13 – is also found in Galen’s medical writings, where Galen refers to strengthening a patient by providing food (Liddell & Scott 1996:1644).8

Paul’s use of στηρίξαι is illuminated further by Homer’s Iliad 16.110, where the verb ἐστήρικτο communicates the idea of something becoming more intense or stronger: ‘On every side, misfortune builds upon misfortune’ [πάντῃ δὲ κακὸν κακῷ ἐστήρικτο]. In the Iliad 21.240, it is the foot that is associated with the stability communicated by στηρίζω: ‘The hero [Achilles] cannot steady himself on his feet!’ [οὐδὲ πόδεσσιν εἶχε στηρίξασθαι].9 The idea of stabilisation – even though it is physical stability in the imagery of Homer’s Iliad – has the potential to shine new light on the spiritual stabilisation evident in Paul’s reference to the hearts of those who are acted upon by Christ in Thessalonica. However, as there are evidently two kinds of stabilisation (philologically precise, but potentially theologically superficial), there is a need for a hermeneutical bridge to make this connection. On the one hand, the notion of stabilising action potentially provides this bridge: human agents are stabilised by the support and action of another (in the case of Achilles, it is the foot; in the case of the Thessalonians, it is Christ). On the other hand, Homer’s vocabulary brings into clearer relief the association between the action-verb στηρίξαι and a part of the human body, whether the foot [πούς] or, in Paul’s grammar, the heart [καρδία].10 In comparison with this Homeric physical imagery, it is Thucydides’ Peloponnesian War 2.49 that resonates with the theological (and anatomical) character of Paul’s vocabulary in 1 Thessalonians 3:12–13. Indeed, by pairing the verb στηρίζω with the noun καρδία, Thucydides describes an illness that ‘settles into the heart’ [ἐς τὴν καρδίαν στηρίξειεν].11 In fact, a fresh comparison presents itself: Thucydides describes an increasing illness in the heart, while Paul speaks of the strengthening of the heart.

While these examples from Galen, Homer and Thucydides shine additional light on Paul’s use of στηρίξαι in 1 Thessalonians 3:13, it is the language of the Septuagint that shows a particular verbal resonance with Paul’s vocabulary.12 The verb στηρίζω is present in Genesis 27:37; 28:12; Exodus 17:12 (2x); Leviticus 13:55; Judges 19:5; 2 Kings 18:16, 18:21; 1 Samuel 26:19; Psalms 104:16, 110:8; Proverbs 15:25, 16:30; Jeremiah 3:12, 17:5, 24:6; Isaiah 22:25, 59:16; Ezekiel 6:2; Daniel 7:28; Amos 9:4; 1 Maccabees 2:17, 2:43, 2:49; and Sirach 4:19, 5:10, 6:37, 22:16, 24:10, 38:34, 40:19 (eds. Lust, Eynikel & Hauspie 2003:569–570; Muraoka 2009:636–637).

Among this selection of biblical texts, Sirach 6:37 resembles 1 Thessalonians 3:10 in a rather striking way. The second part of Sirach 6:37 reads: ‘It is he [the Lord] who will strengthen your heart, and the wisdom that you desire will be accorded to you’ [αὐτὸς στηριεῖ τὴν καρδίαν σου, καὶ ἡ ἐπιθυμία τῆς σοφίας δοθήσεταί σοι].13 Judges 19:5 similarly pairs together the verb στηρίζω and the word καρδία to express the following imperative: ‘fortify yourself’ [στήρισον τὴν καρδίαν σου]. However, a comparison between 1 Thessalonians 3:10 and Judges 19:5 brings into sharper relief the fact that Paul speaks directly about the activity of the κύριος in his act of strengthening the human καρδία.14

The Septuagint’s usage of the verb στηρίζω regularly communicates the idea of establishing someone or something (see Ex 17:12; Ps 110:8; Sir 5:10, 24:10).15 But how is this language received and developed in patristic sources? There are two specific approaches to search for the relevant data related to this question. The first approach is to pursue the entries recorded in Biblindex, a research database that includes the occurrences of biblical verses (such as 1 Th 3:13) in the writings of the early Church Fathers.16 The second approach is to look for occurrences of στηρίζω that occur independently of biblical citations, particularly by drawing from the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG). The presentation that follows will integrate both methods of research.

According to Biblindex, 1 Thessalonians 3:13 occurs 15 times in patristic sources. The following authors and works are represented: Ambrose of Milan, On the Holy Spirit; Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Paul’s Letters; Pseudo-Athanasius of Alexandria, Testimony and Scripture; Augustine, On the Trinity; Basil of Caesarea, On the Holy Spirit; Basil of Caesarea, On Baptism (2x); Callinicus, The Life of Hypatius; Pseudo-Didymus, On the Trinity; John Chrysostom, Homilies on the First Epistle to the Thessalonians (3x); Origen, Commentary on Matthew; Tertullian, On the Resurrection of the Dead; Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Interpretation of Pauline Epistles.17 According to the TLG, 21 forms of στηρίζω are found in the works by John Chrysostom, Athanasius, Didymus, Theodoret, Cyril, as well as in an anonymous work on medicine.18

Among the 15 patristic references to 1 Thessalonians 3:13 recorded by Biblindex, 10 of these references include the verb – στηρίζω – that Paul uses to communicate Christ’s action of strengthening the Thessalonians’ hearts.19 In fact, these patristic sources tend to maintain, à la lettre, Paul’s language in 1 Thessalonians 3:13: εἰς τὸ στηρίξαι ὑμῶν τὰς καρδίας. But even where patristic authors cite Paul word for word, they also add certain nuances that build upon the Pauline grammar of Christ’s activity. This is evident, for example, in Basil’s On the Holy Spirit (2.6.1), where he speaks of ‘our Lord Jesus Christ’ [ὁ κύριος ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦς Χριστός], who ‘establishes our hearts in a vigorous faith’ [στηριγμὸν δὲ τῶν ἡμετέρων καρδιῶν ἐν τῇ ὑγιαινούσῃ πίστει].20

Biblindex also identifies three uses of 1 Thessalonians 3:13 in Chrysostom’s Homilies on the First Epistle to the Thessalonians. In two of these cases, Chrysostom maintains the verb στηρίξαι in the infinitive form.21 What Chrysostom also brings into clearer light is the relation between στηρίξαι in 1 Thessalonians 3:13 and an earlier phrase from 1 Thessalonians 3:5: ‘We sent to you Timothy, our brother and God’s coworker in the gospel of Christ, to strengthen you [εἰς τὸ στηρίξαι ὑμᾶς] and console you in your faith’. The proximity of these two verses (3:5 and 3:13) in Chrysostom’s interpretation expands the vision with which the interpreter understands Christ’s actions. Paul’s sending Timothy to the Thessalonians serves the same purpose of strengthening them [εἰς τὸ στηρίξαι].22

A final selection of texts demonstrates lexical connections with στηρίζω that a number of patristic authors share with Paul, even in cases where they do not appear to cite 1 Thessalonians 3:13 directly.23 In his Expositions of the Psalms (PG27, col.105, l.13), Athanasius establishes the link between the verb στηρίζων and θεός. By way of comparison, Cyril of Alexandria, in his Expositions of the Psalms (PG69, col.812, l.32), speaks of Χριστός in relation to στήριζων, thus highlighting, like Paul, the initiative that Christ in particular takes to build up others. Moreover, in his Commentary on Luke, Cyril speaks of the ‘human heart’ [ἀνθρώπου καρδίαν] which the divine λόγος, as spiritual bread, also strengthens [στηρίζων].24

 Paul’s vocabulary of transforming the body of humiliation: Philippians 3:20–21

While some examples in the classical and patristic literature will resonate with Paul more than others, the interpretation of Paul’s vocabulary is enhanced by the presentation and comparison with these sources. In this part, we will focus on a second Pauline text where a Christological verb is present: Philippians 3:20–21.25 Here Paul uses the verb μετασχματίζω to communicate a dramatic transformation by Christ: ‘But our citizenship is in heaven, and it is from there that we are expecting a Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ. He will transform the body of our humiliation so that it may be conformed to the body of his glory, by the power that also enables him to make all things subject to himself’.26

In this example from Philippians 3:20–21, the verb μετασχηματίζω, a term that occurs only in the Pauline letters among the New Testament literature, appears here in the active future form: μετασχηματίσει.27 Moreover, the grammatical subject of this verb in Philippians 3:21 is the ‘Lord Jesus Christ’ [κύριον Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν], and ‘what’ – or ‘who’ – is transformed is also specified by Paul: ‘the body of our humiliation’ [τὸ σῶμα τῆς ταπεινώσεως ἡμῶν].28 Hence, this verse provides a second example that shines light on the way(s) that Paul envisions Christ’s activity. In the light of this starting point, this section will pursue the following question: How does Paul’s use of μετασχηματίζω compare with uses in Greek and Jewish literature?

To respond to this question, I first present a statistical overview: μετασχηματίζω is found in the works of Aristotle (3x), Plato (2x), Flavius Josephus (2x), Plutarch (1x), Lucian (1x), Diogenes Laertius (1x), Heliodorus (1x), as well as once in 4 Maccabees 9:22 (Bailly 2000:1265; Liddell & Scott 1996:1117; eds. Lust et al. 2003:398; Muraoka 2009:455; BDAG, 641–642). In each of these references, the author communicates a change, although what or who undergoes such change requires a case-by-case examination. In Plato’s Laws (10.903b), the Athenian speaker treats the question of divine care for the world, that is, the governance of all things [τῶν πάντων]. Here the Athenian presents a hypothetical scenario in which all things are transformed each time (like fire into water), that is, rather than passing from one to many and many into one.29

The insight represented in this example from Plato’s Laws (10.903b) merits more commentary, but what the Athenian speaker observes is that the governance of all things is not through a system of transformations, but rather by movements from one to many and from many to one. For this reason, a certain ease characterises the divine care for all things; individual transformations are not the mode of changes. Aristotle’s discourse is equally technical and forms a tradition of philosophical reflection on the governance of all things.30 In his Generation and Corruption (335b26), Aristotle uses the vocabulary of transformation to illustrate how certain theories conflate the following: ‘that which alters and transfigures’ [τὸ μετασχηματίζον] and a ‘generative cause’ [αἰτιώτερόν τε τοῦ γεννᾶν].31

In chapter 79 of his On the Eternity of the World, Philo considers three types of corruption in a way that expands the philosophical traditions of Plato and Aristotle: disassociation, suppression, and confusion. In the second case, that of suppression, Philo cites the example of wax, whereby one ‘changes the form’ [μετασχηματιζόμενος]. It is the dominant quality of the wax that gives way to transformation, not unlike the mortal body that is changed by Christ according to Paul’s language in Philippians 3:21.32 A second example from Philo also shines light on Paul. According to chapter 80 of Philo’s On the Embassy to Gaius, it is Gaius who ‘changes his form’ [μετασχηματίζων] to become a body in multiple forms, including elements, animals and plants.33

In comparison with the 15 occurrences of 1 Thessalonians 3:13 (discussed above), Philippians 3:21 is cited much more frequently in patristic sources.34 Biblindex records 187 occurrences of Philippians 3:21 in the following authors: Ambrose (5x); Ambrosiaster (1x); anonymous sources (2x); Athanasius (3x); Augustine (5x); Basil (4x); Cosmas Indicopleustes (2x); Cyprian of Carthage (3x); Cyril of Alexandria (19x); Cyril of Jerusalem (uncertain) (1x); Didymus (7x); Didymus (uncertain) (2x); Epiphanius (2x); Eusebius (4x); Eusebius (uncertain) (1x); Gregory of Nazianzus (4x); Gregory of Nyssa (6x); Hilary of Poitiers (36x); Irenaeus (1x); Jerome (6x); John Chrysostom (9x); Method of Olympius (10x); Origen (37x); Origen (uncertain) (5x); Pamphilus of Caesarea (1x); Polycarp of Smyrna (1x); Procopius of Gaza (1x); Tertullian (3x); Theodoret of Cyrrhus (6x).35

While μετασχηματίζω appears in the future form in Philippians 3:21, namely, where Paul communicates that Christ will change [μετασχηματίσει] the mortal body, patristic reception shows variation at the grammatical level. In his On the Holy Spirit 28.69, Basil uses the form μετασχηματίσῇ with ὅταν to speak of the time ‘when Christ will have transformed’ the mortal body36. In his pursuit of a suite of interesting questions, Gregory of Nyssa (Against Eunomius 1.22.289) poses one question that uses three forms of μετασχηματίζω: ‘how is their body of humiliation transformed [μετασχηματίζεται], while they think that the one who transforms [τὸν μετασχηματίζοντα] has, himself, the need to change for the better, that is, having the need for another to transform him [μετασχηματίζοντος]?’37

In his Against Celsius 7.50, Origen maintains the future form of μετασχηματίζω, the same form that Paul uses in Philippians 3:21: ‘he [Christ] will transform our body of humiliation’ [ὃς μετασχηματίσει τὸ σῶμα τῆς ταπεινώσεως ἡμῶν].38 Origen also employs this Pauline grammar in his Commentary on Matthew (13.21: μετασχηματίσει), as well as the participle μετασχηματιζόμενα (Commentary on Matthew 17.30). John Chrysostom’s citations of Philippians 3:21 include the two following forms: μετασχηματίσει (Exposition 110 on the Psalms; Homily 14 on Romans; Homily 39 on 1 Corinthians; Homily 41 on 1 Corinthians; Homily 13 on Philippians [3x]) and μετασχηματίζεται (Homily 31 on Matthew). The Pauline form – μετασχηματίσει – also appears once in Theodoret of Cyrrhus’s Explanation of the Song of Songs.39

To conclude our analysis in this part: there are uses of μετασηχματίζω that complement patristic citations of Philippians 3:21 recorded in Biblindex. Lampe’s lexicography presents the following authors who employ μετασηχματίζω: Methodius of Olympia’s On the Resurrection (1x) and Symposium (1x); John Chrysostom’s Homily 25 on John (1x) and Homily 6 on Matthew (1x); Anastasius of Antioch’s Sermon 1 (1x); Isidore of Pelusium’s Epistles (1x); Theodoret’s Interpretation of Pauline Epistles (1x); Athanasius’ Life of Anthony (1x), Dialogue on the Trinity (1x) and Apology against Arius (1x); Clement of Alexandria’s Stromata (1x); Cyril of Alexandria’s Explanations of the Psalms (1x) (Lampe 1961:861).40 The TLG identifies three additional uses of μετασχηματίζω in patristic sources: John Chrysostom’s Expositions on the Psalms, Eusebius’ Supplements and John Damascene’s Sacred Parallels.41

Among these references identified by Lampe and the TLG, Methodius provides particular insight in his Symposium 2.6: it is God who, ‘by his creative virtue’ [τῇ ποιητικῇ δυνάμει], ‘retouches and puts a finishing touch on his ideas, like a sketch artist and painter, to create images of Christ’ [τῷ Χριστῷ μετασχηματίζων καὶ μεταζωγραφῶν τὰς ἰδέας].42 In connection with Methodius’ understanding of divine transformation, we may cite that of Chrysostom, who, in his Homily 25 on John, includes the κόσμος: ‘for this one [the world] is born first, and then the world is transformed’ [καὶ γὰρ πρῶτος οὗτος γεννᾶται, καὶ τότε ὁ κόσμος μετασχηματίζεται].43 It is in this way that patristic authors expand upon the action represented by μετασηχματίζω in Philippians 3:21.

 Paul’s vocabulary of accomplishing works: Romans 15:18–19

This final part of the present article focuses on the third verb selected from the Pauline corpus: κατεργάζομαι. In Romans 15:18–19, Paul says: ‘For I will not venture to speak of anything except what Christ has accomplished through me to win obedience from the Gentiles, by word and deed, by the power of signs and wonders, by the power of the Spirit of God’ [οὐ γὰρ τολμήσω τι λαλεῖν ὧν οὐ κατειργάσατο Χριστὸς δι᾽ ἐμοῦ εἰς ὑπακοὴν ἐθνῶν, λόγῳ καὶ ἔργῳ, ἐν δυνάμει σημείων καὶ τεράτων, ἐν δυνάμει πνεύματος θεοῦ].44 The verb κατειργάσατο appears in the aorist middle indicative form, and the lexical data that our analysis treats are stable according to the critical apparatus of the NA28.45

Different forms of the verb κατεργάζομαι appear often in classical Greek literature and the Septuagint. The Greek authors who are most represented include Herodotus (36x), Pausanias (25x), Xenophon (23x), Diodorus Siculus (15x), Flavius Josephus (12x), Andocides (9x), Appian (8x), Euripides (8x), Isocrates (8x), Plutarch (8x), Polybius (8x), Thucydides (8x) and Galen (7x) (Bailley 2000:1063; Liddell & Scott 1996:924). Occurrences are also evident in Demosthenes (5x), Lysias (5x), Plato (4x), Aristophanes (3x), Lucian (3x), Sophocles (3x), Strabo (3x) and Aristotle (2x). In the Septuagint, κατεργάζομαι is found in the following passages: Exodus 15:17, 35:33, 38:24, 39:1; Deuteronomy 28:39; Numbers 6:3; Judges 16:16; 1 Kings 6:36; Ezekiel 34:4; 36:9; 1 Ezra 4:4; Psalm of Solomon 17:37; Testament of Joseph 10:1 (eds. Lust et al. 2003:331; Muraoka 2009: 388–389; BDAG, 531).

Similar to Paul, classical Greek authors tend to use κατεργάζομαι to speak about carrying out plans. Herodotus (Histories 3.69) refers to Phaedyme, a daughter who promises her father that she will ‘execute’ his orders [ταῦτα τῷ πατρὶ κατεργάσεσθαι]. In his Politics (1310b), Aristotle evokes certain ways of proceeding such that it is ‘easy for each one to realise their intention’ [τοῖς τρόποις τούτοις τὸ κατεργάζεσθαι ῥᾳδίως].46 Moreover, these authors also – like Paul – employ κατεργάζομαι when they speak of the act of accomplishing grand feats that have consequences for society. In his Bacchae (1198b), Euripides even repeats the adjective ‘great’: ‘Oh! Rejoice in these great, great feats – splendid action –, accomplished for our city!’ [φέγηθα, μεγάλα μεγάλα καὶ φανερὰ τᾷδε γᾷ κατειργασένα].47

This conceptual linkage in classical literature highlights further the grand character of what Paul has accomplished – or, rather, what Christ has carried out through him – according to Romans 15:18–19: ‘the obedience of the gentiles’ [ὑπακοὴν ἐθνῶν]. The twofold character of Christ’s action through Paul, namely both quotidian and extraordinary, comes into clearer light. It is with Christ that Paul can, like Herodotus writes in his Histories 5.78, ‘accomplish his task with zeal’ [ἑωυτῷ προεθυμέετο κατεργάζεσθαι].48 Moreover, Paul may also act with Christ to perform an unexpected feat like Euripedes describes in Heracles 150, where Lycus, speaking to Megara (Heracles’ wife), alludes to ‘the grandiose exploit that your husband (Heracles) has achieved’ [τί δὴ τὸ σεμνὸν σῷ κατείργασται πόσει].49

This tradition of marvellous accomplishments converses well with Paul, Philo, Josephus and their biblical vision of divine agency. In Philo’s On Special Laws 2.225, he uses κατειργάσατο – the same form that Paul uses in Romans 15:18 – to indicate that God gave existence to the non-existent [τῷ μὴ ὑπάρχοντι ὕπαρξιν κατειργάσατο].50 This association between κατεργάζομαι and κύριος in both Philo (On Planting 47) and Paul (Rm 15:18) echoes Exodus 15:17, which speaks of ‘the place that you have made, O Lord’ [ὃ κατειργάσω, κύριε]. Paul and Philo’s vision also finds resonance with Psalm of Solomon 17:37, which characterises a Davidic king as such: ‘God strengthens him by the holy Spirit’ [ὁ θεὸς κατειργάσατο αὐτὸν δυνατὸν ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ].51

In terms of the patristic reception of Romans 15:18, Biblindex records 19 occurrences in early Christian sources. In comparison with 1 Thessalonians 3:13 (15 occurrences) and Philippians 3:21 (187 occurrences) treated above, Romans 15:18 is cited slightly more frequently than 1 Thessalonians 3:13, but much less frequently than Philippians 3:21, which is on the higher end of citations as far as the patristic data are concerned.52 The following authors cite Romans 15:18: Ambrosiaster (1x); Athanasius (1x); Pseudo-Athanasius (2x); Basil of Caesarea (uncertain) (1x); Cyril of Alexandria (4x); Didymus (uncertain) (3x); Chrysostom (4x); Origen (2x); Theodoret (1x).53 To what extent do these authors maintain the form κατειργάσατο (see Rm 15:18) in their reception of Paul?

Among the 19 occurrences of Romans 15:18 in patristic sources recorded by Biblindex, 12 references present the Greek verb that Paul uses to express Christ’s action: κατειργάσατο. Among the seven remaining references, four Latin sources maintain a verb: Ambrosiaster (1x: efficit Christus); Pseudo-Athanasius (1x: quod non est operatus per me Christus); Origen (2x: efficit Christus).54 Two occurrences of Romans 15:18 in Chrysostom’s Homily 29 on Romans appear without the verb κατειργάσατο (PG60, col.654, l.57; PG60, col.656, l.20).55 Finally, one uncertain text, Basil, Against Eunomius (PG29, col.768A, l.1), shows a change in verb: in the place of κατειγάσατο Χριστός, this source uses ἀπειργάσατο Χριστός to express what Christ causes to occur through Paul.

To complement the Pauline citations recorded in Biblindex, Lampe’s lexicography presents a selection of early Christian sources that use κατεργάζομαι in the sense of to do, to perform or to work actively: 1 Clement 32:3; Athanasius, On Virginity 2; Athenagoras, Plea 34.1; Testament of Solomon 12:2 (Lampe 1961:730).56 Moreover, Lampe clarifies that the verb κατεργάζομαι may communicate various senses, such as to work upon, to affect, to render or to make. Lampe proposes that the following sources indicate these actions: Macarius, Homily 24.4; Eusebius, Life of Constantine 1.9, 1.25, 3.49; Gregory Thaumaturgus, Oration and Panegyric to Origen 7.29; Chrysostom, Homilies 42.4 and 50.3 on Acts; Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians (5:22); Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Historia Religiosa 5 (PG82, col.1283–1496) (Lampe 1961:730).57

Patristic authors who do not cite Romans 15:18 – but who use the verb κατεργάζομαι – draw from a vast biblical vocabulary.58 This is the case in Athanasius’ Life of Anthony 21, where he cites James 1:20: ‘the anger of humankind does not accomplish the justice of God’ [ὀργὴ ἀνδρὸς δικαιοσύνην θεοῦ οὐ κατεργάζεται], as well as in Cyril of Alexandria’s Pascal Homily 30, where he cites Romans 4:15: ‘for the law produces anger’ [ὁ γὰρ νόμος ὀργὴν κατεργάζεται]. Certain authors, such as Gregory of Nyssa (Catechetical Oration 17), can even expand upon clusters of words that Paul uses (see Philippians 2:12: σωτηρίαν κατεργάζεσθε), although in a way that establishes their own originality and interdependence with Paul’s grammar.59

Patristic reception of Pauline vocabulary brings to light the fact that Paul only makes the association between the verb κατεργάζομαι and the noun Χριστός in Romans 15:18.60 This lexical association is present in early Christian sources where they cite Romans 15:18. Apart from citations of Romans 15:18, patristic authors do not tend to use the Pauline lexical cluster, ‘Christ accomplished’ [κατειργάσατο Χριστός]. However, the instances that do resemble Paul’s grammar in this respect are found in Eusebius’ Commentary on the Psalms.61 In 3.24.18, Eusebius speaks of the Father’s praise of the Son, which is accomplished [κατεργάζεται] in the Church. In 3.67.2–4, Eusebius indicates that Christ’s resurrection from the dead brings about [κατειργάσατο] the scattering of enemies.

 Conclusion

In conclusion, this article has focused on three verbs – στηρίζω (1 Th 3:13); μετασχηματίζω (Phlp 3:21); κατεργάζομαι (Rm 15:18) – to examine the ways in which Paul speaks about Christ’s agency. Our analysis of Paul’s vocabulary in relation to classical Greek literature, the Septuagint, and the New Testament offers more perspective on how Paul articulates Christ’s actions, whether in terms of strengthening humans’ hearts (1 Th 3:13), transforming our bodies of humiliation (Phlp 3:21) or accomplishing activity through Paul himself by the Spirit of God (Rm 15:18).62 While these verbs represent only a narrow subset of Paul’s wider grammar, our lexical analysis shines light on the extent to which, for Paul, Christ is in action.63

The patristic reception of Paul’s vocabulary has also provided a second angle from which to reread Paul. The databases of Biblindex, Lampe’s lexicography, and the TLG have enabled a study on patristic grammars related to Paul’s language. Where early Christian sources pursue certain lines of thinking between Christ’s agency and the vocabulary of στηρίζω, μετασχηματίζω, and κατεργάζομαι, they perform expansions of Paul’s grammar.64 In some cases, patristic authors will cite Paul word for word. In other cases, echoes of words that Paul uses, such as κατεργάζομαι, will only bear a faint resemblance to Paul’s original expressions. As Gregory Thaumaturgus’ Thanksgiving to Origen demonstrates, Origen has ‘worked upon us’ [κατειργάζετο ἡμᾶς], not unlike how, for Paul, Christ has ‘accomplished works through me’ [κατείργάσατο Χριστὸς δι᾽ ἐμοῦ].65

 Acknowledgements Competing interests

The author, Justin M. Hagerman, serve as an editorial board member of this journal. Justin M. Hagerman has no other competing interests to declare.

 CRediT authorship contribution

Justin M. Hagerman: Writing – original draft. The author confirms that this work is entirely their own, has reviewed the article, approved the final version for submission and publication, and takes full responsibility for the integrity of its findings.

 Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

 Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

 Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

 References Adams, E., 2000, Constructing the world: A study in Paul’s cosmological language, T&T Clark, Edinburgh. Bailly, A., 2000, Dictionnaire grec-français, Hachette, Paris. Barclay, J.M.G., 2015, Paul and the gift, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Barclay, J.M.G. & Gathercole, S.J. (eds.), 2006, Divine and human agency in Paul and his cultural environment, T&T Clark, London. Bauckham, R.J., 2008, Jesus and the God of Israel: God crucified and other Essays on the New Testament’s Christology of divine identity, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Doble, P., 2002, ‘“Vile Bodies” or transformed persons? Philippians 3.21 in context’, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 24(4), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142064X0202400401 Dunn, J.D.G., 1998, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, T&T Clark, London. Eastman, S.G., 2017a, Paul and the person: Reframing Paul’s anthropology, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Eastman, S.G., 2017b, ‘The legacy of J. Louis Martyn: Questions of agency’, Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 7(1–2), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.5325/jstudpaullett.7.1-2.0119 Engberg-Pedersen, T., 2000, Paul and the Stoics, T&T Clark, Edinburgh. Engberg-Pedersen, T., 2002, ‘Response to Martyn’, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 24(4), 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142064X0202400404 Fatehi, M., 2000, The spirit’s relation to the risen lord in Paul: An examination of Its Christological implications, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen. Fee, G.D., 2007, Pauline Christology: An exegetical-theological study, Baker Academic, Grand Rapids, MI. Fee, G.D., 2009, The First and second letters to the Thessalonians, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Forbes, C., 1986, ‘Comparison, self-praise and irony: Paul’s boasting and the conventions of Hellenistic rhetoric’, New Testament Studies 32(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0028688500013485 Foster, P., 2015, ‘Echoes without resonance: Critiquing certain aspects of recent scholarly trends in the study of the Jewish scripture in the New Testament’, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 38(1), 96–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142064X15595941 Frey, J. & Levison, J.R. (eds.), 2014, The holy spirit, inspiration, and the cultures of antiquity: multidisciplinary perspectives, De Gruyter, Boston, MA. Hagerman, J., 2020, ‘Agency as a theory of action: A conversation in Pauline studies and analytic philosophy’, Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 10(2), 98–120. https://doi.org/10.5325/jstudpaullett.10.2.0098 Hagerman, J., 2024, ‘Fragility and eccentricity: The mortal and glorified body in Philippians 3:21’, Horizons in Biblical Theology 46(2), 154–178. https://doi.org/10.1163/18712207-12341490 Harding, S., 2016, Paul’s eschatological anthropology: The dynamics of human transformation, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, MN. Harink, D., 2017, ‘J.L. Martyn and Apocalyptic discontinuity: The Trinitarian, Christological ground of Galatians in Galatians 4:1–11’, Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 7(1–2), 101–111. https://doi.org/10.5325/jstudpaullett.7.1-2.0101 Harl, M., 1986, La Bible d’Alexandrie: La Genèse, Cerf, Paris. Hill, W.A., 2015, Paul and the Trinity: Persons, relations, and the Pauline letters, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Holtz, T., 1986, Der Erste Brief an die Thessalonicher, Benziger/Neukirchener Verlag, Zürich/Neukirchen. Hurtado, L.W., 2003, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in earliest Christianity, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Hurtado, L.W., 2015, One God, one lord: Early Christian devotion and ancient Jewish Monotheism, 3rd edn., Bloomsbury T&T Clark, London. Johnson Leese, J.J., 2020, Christ, creation and the cosmic goal of redemption: A study of Pauline creation theology as read by irenaeus and applied to ecotheology, Bloomsbury, London. Kühn, K.G. (ed.), 1821–1833, Claudii Galeni opera omnia, C. Cnobloch, Leipzig. Lampe, G.W.H., 1961, A Patristic Greek Lexicon, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Légasse, S., 1999, Les épîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, Cerf, Paris. Leemans, J., Roskam, G. & Segers, J. (eds.), 2019, John Chrysostom and Severian of Gabalda: Homilists, Exegetes and Theologians, Peeters, Leuven/Paris/Bristol. Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R., 1996, A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Loke, A.T.E., 2017, The origin of divine Christology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Lust, J., Eynikel, E. & Hauspie, K. (eds.), 2003, Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart. Marguerat, D. (ed.), 2003, La Bible en récits: l’exégèse biblique à l’heure du lecteur: Colloque international d’analyse narrative des textes de la Bible, Lausanne (mars 2002), Labor et Fides, Geneva. Martyn, J.L., 1997a, Galatians: A new translation with introduction and Commentary, Doubleday, New York, NY. Martyn, J.L., 1997b, Theological issues in the letters of Paul, T&T Clark, London. Martyn, J.L., 2002, ‘De-apocalyptising Paul: An essay focused on Paul and the Stoics by Troels Engberg-Pedersen’, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 24(4), 61–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142064X0202400403 Martyn, J.L., 2006, ‘Epilogue’, in J.M.G. Barclay & S.J. Gathercole (eds.), Divine and human agency in his cultural environment, pp. 173–183, T&T Clark, London. Maston, J., 2010, Divine and human agency in second temple Judaism and Paul: A comparative study, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen. McDonough, S.M., 2009, Christ as creator: Origins of a New Testament doctrine, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Mellerin, L., 2013, ‘Methodological issues in Biblindex, An online index of biblical quotations in early Christian literature’, in L. Mellerin, M. Vinzent & H.A.G. Houghton (eds.), Biblical quotations in Patristic Texts (Papers presented at the sixteenth international conference on Patristic studies held in Oxford 2011), pp. 11–32, Peeters, Leuven/Paris/Walpole. Mellerin, L., 2021, ‘Biblindex: An index of biblical quotations in early Christian literature’, The Harp: A Review of Syriac and Oriental Ecumenical Studies 37, 499–510. Meyer, N.A., 2015, Adams’s dust and Adam’s glory in the Hodayot and the Letters of Paul: Rethinking anthropogony and theology, Brill, Leiden. Miller, C.D., 2014, The practice of the body of Christ: Human agency in Pauline Theology after MacIntyre. Pickwick Publications, Eugene, OR. Mitchell, M.M., 2000, The heavenly trumpet: John Chrysostom and the art of Pauline interpretation, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen. Morgan, T., 2020, Being ‘In Christ’ in the letters of Paul: Saved through Christ and in his hands, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen. Morris, L., 1991, The first and second Epistles to the Thessalonians, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Muraoka, T., 2009, A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint, Peeters, Louvain/Paris/Walpole. Newsom, C.A., 2012, ‘Models of the moral self: Hebrew Bible and second temple Judaism’, Journal of Biblical Literature 131(1), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.2307/23488209 Oropeza, B.J., Evans, C.A. & Sloan, P.T. (eds.), 2020, New studies in textual interplay, Bloomsbury, London. Orr, P., 2014, Christ absent and present: A study in Pauline Christology, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen. Pomeroy, S., 2022, Chrysostom as Exegete: Scholarly traditions and rhetorical aims in the homilies on Genesis, Brill, Leiden. Rabens, V., 2014, The holy spirit and ethics in Paul: Transformation and Empowerment for religious-ethical life, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, MN. Riffaterre, M., 1971, Essais de stylistique structurale, Flammarion, Paris. Riffaterre, M., 1979, La Production du texte, Seuil, Paris. Schmisek, B., 2013, ‘The body of his glory: Resurrection imagery in Philippians 3:20–21’, BTB 43(1), 23–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146107912470334 Scott, M., 2014, The hermeneutics of Christological Psalmody in Paul: An intertextual enquiry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Sprinkle, P.M., 2013, Paul and Judaism revisited: A study of divine and human agency in Salvation, IVP Academic, Lisle, IL. Stanley, C.D., 1990, ‘Paul and Homer: Greco-Roman citation practice in the first century CE’, Novum Testamentum 32(1), 48–78. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853690X00197 Strazicich, J., 2007, Joel’s use of scripture and the scripture’s use of Joel: Appropriation and resignification in second temple Judaism and early Christianity, Brill, Leiden. Tate, W.R., 2008, Biblical interpretation: An integrated approach, Baker Academic, Grand Rapids, MI. Tilling, C., 2015, Paul’s divine Christology, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Tilling, C., 2025, ‘Paul, divine Christology, and the trinity’, in C. Tilling & D. Sumner (eds.), T&T handbook of Christology, pp. 133–146, T&T Clark, London/New York. Turner, M., 1994, ‘The spirit of Christ and “Divine” Christology’, in J.B. Green & M. Turner (eds.), Jesus of Nazareth, Lord and Christ: Essays on the historical Jesus and New Testament Christology, pp. 413–436, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Turner, M., 1996, The holy spirit and spiritual gifts in the New Testament Church and today, Hendrickson, Peabody, MA. Van de Sande Bakhuyzen, W.H., 1901, Grieschischen die Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte, J.C. Hinrichs’sche Buchhandlung, Leipzig. Van Kooten, G.H., 2003, Cosmic Christology in Paul and the Pauline School: Colossians and Ephesians in the context of Graeco-Roman cosmology, with a new synopsis of the Greek Texts, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen. Wanamaker, C.A., 1990, The Epistles to the Thessalonians: A Commentary on the Greek text, Eerdmans/Paternoster Press, Grand Rapids, MI. Watson, F.B., 2001, ‘The triune divine identity: Reflections on Pauline God-Language, in disagreement with J.D.G. Dunn’, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 23(80), 99–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142064X0102308006 Wells, K.B., 2014, Grace and agency in Paul and second temple Judaism: Interpreting the transformation of the heart, Brill, Leiden. Wright, W. (ed.), 1871, Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, Williams & Norgate, London.

How to cite this article: Hagerman, J.M., 2026, ‘How does Paul speak about Christ’s agency? Lexical analysis and patristic reception of Paul’s vocabulary’, Integrated Biblical and Theological Studies 2(1), a13. https://doi.org/10.4102/ibts.v2i1.13

See, for example, Barclay (2015); eds. Barclay and Gathercole (2006); Bauckham (2008); Dunn (1998); Eastman (2017a); Fatehi (2000); Fee (2007); Hurtado (2003, 2015); Martyn (2006); Maston (2010); Miller (2014); Morgan (2020); Orr (2014); Sprinkle (2013); Tilling (2015); Turner (1994, 1996); Van Kooten (2003); Wells (2014). This article aims to build upon this scholarly momentum.

See esp. Adams (2000); Johnson Leese (2020); McDonough (2009).

These selections of Pauline verses are made on the basis of evidence where Paul uses different verbs to articulate Christ’s actions. In 1 Thessalonians 3:13, Paul uses the verb στηρίζω to indicate the action of strengthening; in Philippians 3:21, Paul employs the verb μετασχηματίζω to speak of the action of transformation; in Romans 15:18–19, Paul uses the verb κατεργάζομαι to refer to the action of accomplishing. While Paul uses other verbs in his letters, these three verbs represent an informed selection from three different letters and provide a solid starting point for analysis. To delineate the scope of analysis in this article, I privilege the patristic citations of these three verses as recorded in the Biblindex database.

An additional advantage to note: this selection arguably expands the range of key texts that scholars discuss when analysing Paul’s interpretation of Christ. See the rôle that 1 Corinthians 8:6 plays (e.g. Bauckham 2008; Hurtado 2003; Loke 2017; Tilling 2015).

The emphasis on agency follows a scholarly current that appears in the scientific literature (eds. Barclay & Gathercole 2006; Eastman 2017b; Hagerman 2022; Wells 2014). As Eastman 2017b and Harink 2017 point out, this concentration on agency is especially evident in the works of J.L. Martyn (Martyn 1997a, 1997b, 2006). To be noted as well is Martyn’s discussion with T. Engberg-Pedersen on Pauline theology and ethics (Engberg-Pedersen 2000, 2002; Martyn 2002).

This translation is taken from the NRSV.

The critical apparatus NA28 presents the textual history of the final word, ἀμήν, across a vast collection of articles, sometimes included but often omitted by textual witnesses. In terms of the rest of 1 Thessalonians 3:12–13, there is evidence of variation only in the words ἀμέμπτους/ἀμέμπτως (3:13) and ἁγιωσύνῃ/δικαιοσύνη (3:13). Indeed, the infinitive verb form στηρίξαι is attested in the manuscripts. See the following commentators for discussion: Fee 2009; Holtz 1986; Légasse 1999; Morris 1991; Wanamaker 1990.

The reference to Galen is found in the critical edition (vol. 19), edited by Kühn (ed. 1821–1833:192): στηρίξαι κατὰ τὴν ἀρχὴν (which Liddell and Scott translate as ‘feed up’ a patient). See also Harl (1986:219).

See also Homer, Odyssey 12.430, where the foot is also related to στηρίξω: ‘But I am able neither to place my foot nor to climb the trunk [of the fig tree]’ [οὐδέ πῇ εἶχον οὔτε στηρίξαι ποσὶν ἔμπεδον οὔτ᾽ ἐπιβῆναι].

A detailed development of this hermeneutic bridge represents an interesting future venue for research. In keeping with the argumentative line developed in the present article, the construction of this type of hermeneutical bridge is both linguistic and theological. For insights in this domain of research (see Forbes 1986; Stanley 1990).

The rest of this passage in Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 2.49 presents the increasing force of this illness that has settled into the καρδία: ‘And what followed were evacuations of bile, under all the forms for which doctors have names, with great discomfort’ [καὶ ἀποκαθάρσεις χολῆς πᾶσαι ὅσαι ὑπὸ ἰατρῶν ὠνομασμέναι εἰσὶν ἐπῇσαν, καὶ αὗται μετὰ ταλαιπωρίας μεγάλης].

For a recent analysis and increasingly sophisticated methodological discussions on the relation between the vocabularies of the New Testament and the Septuagint (LXX), for instance, see Foster (2015); Scott (2014).

See Sirach 22:16, where the heart is also a focal point for the reader: ‘a resolute heart, after mature reflection, is like an ornament of stucco on a polished wall’ [οὕτως καρδία ἐστηριγμένη ἐπὶ διανοήματος βουλῆς ἐν καιρῷ οὐ δειλιάσει].

Compare also Daniel 7:28, where the text indicates the speaker’s agency (i.e. rather than that of the κύριος): ‘I kept these things in my heart’ [καὶ τὸ ῥῆμα ἐν καρδίᾳ μου ἐστήριξα].

See also the recurrence of this motif – that is, strengthening a person – in New Testament literature: Luke 22:32; 1 Peter 5:10; 2 Thessalonians 2:17.

The Biblindex project – whose website launched in December 2008 – builds upon the research from the Biblica Patristica project (1965–2000). The searchable database of Biblindex currently includes 600 000 references and counting. For more background on Biblindex, see Mellerin 2013, 2021.

These are the data entries recorded in Biblindex. The reference found in Origen, Commentary on Matthew, remains to be verified. The only works where 1 Thessalonians 3:13 occurs more than once are Basil of Caesarea’s On Baptism (2x) and John Chrysostom’s Homilies on the First Epistle to the Thessalonians (3x).

These are the data entries recorded in the TLG. The specific works include: John Chrysostom’s Fragments on Proverbs (2x), On Penitence, Epistles 18–242, Homilies on 1 Corinthians, Homilies on 2 Corinthians, Against Theater, On the Parabole of the Samaritan, and Eclogues from Diverse Homilies, Athanasius’ Expositions on the Psalms, Testimony and Scripture, and Book of Definitions, Didymus’ (or Pseudo-Didymus’) Fragments on Proverbs, On the Trinity, Theodoret’s Interpretation of the Psalms, Cyril’s Exposition of the Psalms, Commentary on Luke, and Thesaurus on the Holy and Consubstantial Trinity, and the anonymous text on medicine entitled Διάγνωσις περὶ τῶν ὀξέων καὶ χρονίων νοσημάτων.

In Greek, as we have seen, Paul uses the infinitive στηρίξαι, the form that also appears in the works of Basil, Didymus (or Pseudo-Didymus), Chrysostom, and Theodoret. In Latin sources, Ambrose (On the Holy Spirit 3.14.94) and Ambrosiaster (Commentary on the Pauline Epistles [Ad Thesalonicenses prima 3.13]) use the expression ‘ad confirmanda corda vestra’, which represents translation of the Pauline expression εἰς τὸ στηρίξαι ὑμῶν τὰς καρδίας in 1 Thessalonians 3:13.

See also Basil, On the Holy Spirit, 2.4.1: it is ‘the words of the Lord’ [τὰ τοῦ κύριου ῥήματα] that, ‘more than anything, establish our hearts in the Holy and guiding Spirit’ [πλέον πάντων ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ καὶ ἡγεμονικῷ στηρίξαι τὰς καρδίας ἡμῶν].

The following occurrence remains to be verified on Biblindex: see PG62, col.419, l.60. Here it appears that the vocabulary of 1 Thessalonians 3:12 is cited, though without the vocabulary of 3:13.

On Chrysostom’s interpretative style, see Leemans, Roskam and Segers (eds.) (2019); Mitchell (2000); Pomeroy (2022).

One example that contributes further to the database of Biblindex is found in Athanasius’s Testimony and Scripture (see PG28, col.33, l.38): καὶ στηρίζων τὰς καρδίας ἐν ἁγιωσύνῃ ἔμπροσθεν τοῦ Θεοῦ ἐν τῇ παρουσίᾳ τοῦ κύριου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (compare with 1 Thess 3:13).

Here we observe a certain analogy with Galen’s use of στηρίζω (Liddell & Scott 1996:1644) to portray the strength that comes from receiving nourishment. See also Chrysostom, Against Theater (PG56, col.546, l.30), which also frames this strengthening in somatic terms (though in a negative sense): παλαιὸν σῶμα στηρίζων [‘sustaining the old body’].

The Greek text is relatively stable: ἡμῶν γὰρ τὸ πολίτευμα ἐν οὐρανοῖς ὑπάρχει, ἐξ οὗ καὶ σωτῆρα ἀπεκδεχόμεθα κύριον Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν, ὃς μετασχηματίσει τὸ σῶμα τῆς ταπεινώσεως ἡμῶν σύμμορφον τῷ σώματι τῆς δόξης αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὴν ἐνέργειαν τοῦ δύνασθαι αὐτὸν καὶ ὑποτάξαι αὐτῷ τὰ πάντα. The critical apparatus of Nestle-Aland 28 (see p.610) records the presence and omission of εἰς τὸ γένεσθαι αὐτό and εἁυτῷ in available witnesses.

Here I cite the translation from the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV).

See BDAG, 641–642: 1 Corinthians 4:6, 2 Corinthians 4:6, 11:13, 11:14 and 11:15 are cited. The closest connection appears between Philippians 3:21 and 2 Corinthians 4:6. I thank Jean-Noël Guinot for drawing my attention to the conceptual linkage between μετασχηματίζω and μεταμορφόω, which also appears in Pauline and patristic literature.

The interpretation of this transformed σῶμα in Philippians 3:21 is complex (see Doble 2002; Hagerman 2024; Harding 2016; Meyer 2016; Newsom 2012; Schmisek 2013; Van Kooten 2003; Wells 2014).

Plato, Laws 10.903b: Εἰ μὲν γὰρ μὴ πρὸς τὸ ὅλον ἀεὶ βλέπων πλάττοι τις μετασχηματίζων τὰ πάντα, οἷον ἐκ πυρὸς ὕδωρ ἔμψυχον. The main point to highlight here is that the Athenian speaker thinks that a complete transformation of each ‘thing’ is excessively complex.

In his On Heaven 298b31, Aristotle mentions representatives of this tradition: ‘Others claim that everything comes and goes, that nothing is fixed apart from one thing: that from which all things proceed by way of transformation [ἐξ οὗ ταῦτα πάντα μετασχηματίζεσθαι πέφυκεν]. This is what Heraclitus of Ephesus, with many others, seems to mean’.

Similar to the example from Plato’s Laws, this insight from Aristotle’s On Generation and Corruption requires further discussion. That said, Aristotle’s vocabulary helps to interpret Paul’s language in Phil 3:21: Christ’s act of transformation works on what (or who) is already generated, that is, the mortal body.

The third type of corruption that Philo treats – that of confusion – is also pertinent for the interpretation of Paul. In chapter 79 of his On the Eternity of the World, Philo writes: ‘the qualities of confused bodies have disappeared to engender a body that is full, unique, and distinct’.

See also 4 Maccabees 9:22, where it is as if, in the fire, the eldest brother is ‘transformed into an incorruptible being’ [μετασχηματιζόμενος εἰς ἀφθαρσίαν]. The vocabulary of μετασχηματίζω also appears in the Testament of Solomon 20:13; Testament of Job; Testament of Reuben 5:6; and Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 7.257; 8.267.

There are occasions where Biblindex presents Phil 3:21 as part of a larger citation of more verses, such as Philippians 3:19–21 or Philippians 3:20–21. This search result warrants closer examination of each occurrence, particularly to confirm if the verb μετασχηματίζω of Philippians 3:21 is present in the selected source.

The two anonymous sources are De recta in Deum fide (in Van de Sande Bakhuyzen 1901) and Acta Thomae (in ed. Wright 1871). Biblindex also presents a question mark where the identity of the author is uncertain (which I have indicated in parentheses above).

What is particularly interesting here is the way that Basil creates an exegetical link between Philippians 3:21 and 1 Corinthians 15:44 by playing on Paul’s vocabulary: ὅταν μετασχηματίσῃ τὸ σῶμα τῆς ταπεινώσεως ἡμῶν ἀπὸ τοῦ ψυχικοῦ πρὸς τὸ πνευματικόν (‘when he [Christ] will have transformed our body of humiliation from physical to spiritual’).

See occurrences of Phil 3:21 in Gregory of Nyssa, Against Eunomius 3.3.16; 3.3.45; Homilies on the Song of Songs 15:1 (2x); 15.3.

See also the Latin conservation of Origen, Commentary on Romans 7.1, where the form transformabit appears to communicate that Christ will transform the body of humiliation. The passive form transformabitur appears with corpus in Origen, Commentary on Romans 7.2 to indicate that the body of humiliation will be transformed.

The grammatical form that Paul uses in Philippians 3:21 – μετασχηματίσει – is also found four times in Theodoret’s Interpretation of Pauline Epistles (see PG82, col.356D, l.9; PG82, col.584B, l.12; PG82, col.617C, l.8; PG82, col.688B, l.1).

As Lampe indicates here, the data from Methodius’ On the Resurrection and Theodoret’s Interpretation of Pauline Epistles are also references to Philippians 3:21.

The reference in Lampe 1961:861 to Eusebius’ Supplements (PG22, col.985, l.52) also appears to be a Pauline citation: ὁ γὰρ μετασχηματίζων τὰ σώματα τῆς ταπεινώσεως ἡμῶν.

Methodius, On the Resurrection 3.16 also expands the perspective on Christ’s transformative action in Philippians 3:21: ὁ μετασχηματισμὸς ἡ εἰς τὸ ἀπαθὲς καὶ ἔνδοξόν ἐστιν ἀποκατάστασις.

See also Chrysostom’s creative exegesis of the star of Epiphany in relation to sight in his Homily 6 on Matthew: ὅτι γὰρ οὐ τῶν πολλῶν εἷς ὁ ἀστὴρ οὗτος ἦν, μᾶλλον δὲ οὐδὲ ἀστὴρ, ὡς ἔμοιγε δοκεῖ, ἀλλὰ δύναμίς τις ἀόρατος εἰς ταύτην μετασχηματισθεῖσα τὴν ὄψιν, πρῶτον ἀπὸ τῆς πορείας αὐτῆς δῆλον.

Here I cite the translation from the NRSV.

That said, there is remarkable variance in the beginning of Romans 15:18: (1) τολμήσω τι λαλεῖν; (2) τι τολμήσω λαλεῖν; (3) τολμήσω τι εἰπεῖν; (4) τολμήσω τι λαλῆσαι; (5) τολμήσω λαλῆσαι τι; (6) τολμῶ τι λαλεῖν. However, these variants do not appear to affect the form of the verb attested in available witnesses: κατειργάσατο. See also the presence of the word λογῶν after δι᾽ ἐμοῦ in the Codex Vaticanus (designated B in the critical apparatus of NA28), which may affect the interpretation of how Christ accomplishes actions through Paul.

See also Aristophanes, Assembly of Women 247: ‘Hence it is you that we, others, women, choose for a strategy, in order that you think to realise your plans’ [καὶ σε στρατηγὸν αἱ γυναῖκες αὐτόθεν αἱρούμεθ᾽, ἢν ταῦθ᾽ ἁπινοεῖς κατεργάσῃ].

The references that associate κατεργάζομαι with great feats are numerous. See Diodorus of Siculus, Library 17.1.3; Herodotus, Histories 5.24; Pausanius, Description of Greece 8.52.3; Plutarch, Theseus 29.3; Xenophon, Hiero 2.2.

There also exist cases, by contrast, where Greek authors use κατεργάζομαι to speak of not being able to execute certain plans; see Andocides, Discourses 4.32; Diodorus, Library 17.2.5; Herodotus, Histories 2.150; Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 7.3.

The marvellous character of certain undertakings is similarly evident in Euripedes, The Phoenicians 1060; Diodorus, Library 14.13.2; Herodotus, Histories 6.25.

In this passage, Philo refers to the creative ‘power’ (δύναμις) that parents imitate in giving life – or immortality – to their children [τὸ γένος ἀθανατίζουσιν]. See Philo’s expression regarding the realisation of wisdom in On Drunkenness 113: κατεργάσασθαι σοφίαν; see also κατεργάζομαι in Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 4.200; 11.45.

In Romans 15:19, Paul indicates more specifically the manner by which Christ accomplishes works through him: ‘by the power of the Spirit of God’ [ἐν δυνάμει πνεῦματος θεοῦ]. See Fatehi (2000); Rabens (2014); Frey and Levison (eds. 2014).

For a point of reference: Biblindex records 377 occurrences of John 3:16 (compare 187 for Phlp 3:21, 19 for Rm 15:18, and 15 for 1 Th 3:13), a text to which patristic authors often return in their biblical interpretation.

As noted above, Biblindex indicates uncertainty with a question mark, which I have followed here by signalling ‘uncertain’ in the cases of Basil and Didymus. I also note that Romans 15:18 is included in a range of verses (15:17–19; 15:17–21; 15:18–19), which requires a case-by-case analysis, similar to our methodological practice above.

Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Pauline Epistles (CSEL81.1, p.464, l.23); Pseudo-Athanasius, On the Trinity and the Holy Spirit (PG26, col.1206A, l.10); Origen (2x), Commentary on Romans (PG14, col.1268C, l.10; PG14, col.1269B, l.8).

In the first example (PG, col.654, l.57), Chrysostom uses the verb τολημρότερον, which Paul also uses in Romans 15:18 [τολμήσω]. In the second example (PG60, col.656, l.20), Chrysostom cites the second part of Romans 15:18: ἐν λόγῳ καὶ ἔργω, ἐν δυνάμει σημείων καὶ τεράτων, ἐν δυνάμει πνεύματος θεοῦ.

The verb’s sense of ‘to subdue or to consume’ is also well attested in patristic literature (see Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1.7.1), but differs from the Pauline usage in Romans 15:18.

The TLG also records 621 occurrences of the lemma κατεργάζομαι and 62 occurrences of the form that Paul uses in Romans 15:18: κατειργάσατο.

BDAG, 531: κατεργάζομαι is used in Romans 1:27, 4:15, 5:3, 7:8, 7:13, 7:15, 7:17, 7:20, 15:18; 1 Corinthians 5:3; 2 Corinthians 4:17, 5:5, 7:10, 7:11, 9:11, 12:12; 1 Peter 4:3; James 1:3; 1:20; Philippians 2:12; Ephesians 6:13.

Compare expressions from Philippians 2:12 [τὴν ἑαυτῶν σωτηρίαν κατεργάζεσθε] and Gregory of Nyssa, Catechetical Oration 17 [τὴν σωτρηίαν ὑμῶν κατεργάζεται]. This cluster is also evident in Cyril, Pascal Homily 10: τὴν ἑαυτῶν σωτηρίαν κατεργαζώμεθα.

But see 2 Corinthians 5:5, where Paul associates θεός and κατεργάζομαι to say: ‘It is God himself who has destined us for this, and he has given his Spirit as an installation of the inheritance that is reserved for us’ [ὁ κατεργασάμενος ἡμᾶς εἰς αὐτὸ τοῦτο θεός, ὁ δοὺς ἡμῖν τὸν ἀρραβῶνα τοῦ πνεύματος]. See also 2 Corinthians 7:10.

See 3.24.18 (PG23, col.312, l.21); 3.67.2–4 (PG23, col. 684, l.11). The lexical association between θεός and κατεργάζομαι is evident in Athanasius, Fragment of Exposition on the Psalms 92 (PG27, col.576, l.6); Βasil of Caesarea, Homilies on the Psalms (33.13; PG29, col.384, l.36); Gregory of Nazianzus, Discourse 5.31 (SC309, p.356, l.10). In this biblical and theological current, John Chrysostom, On the Kalends 4 (PG48, col.959, l.55), cites 2 Corinthians 7:10.

The trinitarian dimension of Paul’s thought comes through in an interesting way in Romans 15:18–19. See Watson 2001; Tilling 2025.

I wish to thank Guillaume Bady, who helped me to articulate more clearly this expression – ‘le Christ en action’ – in a title for a recent contribution for the Chrysostom seminar at Sources Chrétiennes (Lyon, 21 May 2025).

On the concept of expansion, see Riffaterre 1971, 1979. For recent discussion on Riffaterre’s theoretical models and biblical interpretation, see Marguerat (ed. 2003); Oropeza, Evans and Sloan (eds. 2020); Strazicich (2007); Tate (2008).

SC148, p.136, l.29. For work on intertextuality – both biblical and patristic – I have benefitted greatly from conversations at Lyon Catholic University and Sources Chrétiennes. Like this example of Gregory to Origen, I wish to address my thanks to organisers and participants for making the Biblindex seminar like a garden that ‘causes seeds to grow’ (Is 61:11: ὡς κῆπος τὰ σπέρματα αὐτοῦ).